I dont belive in ghost Essay Example for Free

I dont belive in ghost Essay I dont belive in ghost!,I said to my grand mom.But she shocked me by saying her horror incident that she experienced .A fort night ago,she was alone at home and we children were playing in the garden.She was going to watch a horror movie.A very thrilling scene was going to happen,she said.Suddenly the lights started to flicker and there was a powercut. She heard nises f someone counting numbers.As it counted till ten,it saidI am coming. She got scared.She went to switch on the emergency light but unfortunately it was not charged. It was really dark. Some how she managed toreach her room. She sat on the bed and started to pray. She heard noises,but as she was scared she did not go to see who was there. She heard noises of doors shutting,someone saying shhhhhhhh,and so on. As soon as the light came, she came outand saw that there was no one.After narrating the whole story she said that she believed in ghost. I suddenly started to lauh and said that it does not make sense.Evil spirits and ghost donot exist. I told her actually what happened. We cousins were playing in the garden.As it started btto rain,thre was a sudden powercut. We came in and then decided to play hie and seek. One of us started to count and we all started to hide ourselves.I said t her that we were the ones who made that noises.As the rain stopped,the light came an we went back to the garden for playing.Thats the reason she could notsee anyone in the house.I tld her not to believe in such incidents and try to find the logic behind it. She lso started to laugh. i would like to convey a massage that never ever believe in ghost.

The Boundary Of The Boundless Of Anaximander Philosophy Essay

The Boundary Of The Boundless Of Anaximander Philosophy Essay This study tells about Anaximanders theory of Apeiron and as well as his life and his philosophical background. Anaximander is said to be a younger contemporary of Thales, who also sought for the first material principle; he was a disciple and successor of Thales and philosophized in dialogue with him. He was not mentioned until the time of Aristotle. Unlike Thales, Anaximander wrote a philosophical work, entitled  On Nature; unfortunately, neither this nor any of his other works has survived. The information about his philosophy came from summaries of it by other writers, especially Aristotle and Theophrastus. Anaximander was said to have drawn the first map of the inhabited world on a tablet, which was a marvel in his day (Agathemerus  I, 1) Statement of the Problem Anaximanders theory of Apeiron, a Greek word which literarily means boundless, indeterminate, unlimited, infinite, or indefinite is an unintelligible idea about the origin of all things. It gave confusion with his Arche which means beginning, or origin. He explains how the  four elements  of ancient physics (air,  earth,  water  and  fire) are formed, and how Earth and terrestrial beings are formed through their interactions. However, unlike other Pre-Socratics, he never defines this principle precisely, and it has generally been understood (e.g., by Aristotle and by  Saint Augustine) as a sort of primal  chaos. The researcher has his own rule on doing this research. The studies came from the book and through internet. The researchers use a descriptive type of research. This research is for educational purposes and serves as a requirement in on the researchers study. All of the information that has gathered in the entire sources is a big help in answering the research. All of the information that was gathered will serve as knowledge to us and for the readers. This study will be beneficial to the students and instructors. This researchs goal is designed to help students improve academic competency. The output of this study is a source material that the teachers can assimilate and disseminate by diffusion and induction technique. The proposed study serves the students as their reference or guide in creating their research. It will also help students taking help in making their research studies about their topics. For the teachers, this study will help them to have a deeper understanding of the said research. By this study they will come up with easier and powerful research. To the researchers, the proposed study will benefit and help the future researcher as their guide. The study can also open in development of this study.   Background of the Study Anaximanders Biography Anaximander, son of Praxiades, was born in  Miletus  during the third year of the 42nd  Olympiad  (610 BC).  According to  Apollodorus of Athens, Greek grammarian of the 2nd century BC, he was sixty-four years old during the second year of the 58th Olympiad (547-546  BC), and died shortly afterwards. Establishing a timeline of his work is now impossible, since no document provides chronological references.  Themistius, a 4th-century  Byzantine  rhetorician, mentions that he was the first of the known Greeks to publish a written document on nature. Therefore his texts would be amongst the earliest written in  prose, at least in the Western world. By the time of  Plato, his philosophy was almost forgotten, and Aristotle, his successor  Theophrastus  and a few  doxographers  provide us with the little information that remains. However, we know from Aristotle that Thales, also from Miletus, precedes Anaximander. It is debatable whether Thales actually was the teacher of Anaximander, but there is no doubt that Anaximander was influenced by Thales theory that everything is derived from water. One thing that is not debatable is that even the ancient Greeks considered Anaximander to be from the Monist school which began in Miletus with Thales followed by Anaximander and finished with  Anaximenes  3rd-centuryRoman  rhetorician  Aelian  depicts him as leader of the Milesian colony to  Apollonia  on the  Black Sea  coast, and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen. Indeed,  Various History  (III, 17) explains that philosophers sometimes also dealt with political matters. It is very likely that leaders of Miletus sent him there as a legislator to create a constitution or simply to maintain the colonys allegiance. Philosophical View The Apeiron Anaximander shares Thales assumption that all things originate from one original element and ultimately are that element; to use Aristotles terminology, he holds that there is a first (material) principle (arche) of all things. Unlike Thales, however, Anaximander asserts that the first principle is not water but what he calls theapeiron, translated as the indeterminate or limitless. Simplicius , drawing upon theophrastus work, gives following account of anaximanders. Anaximander named the arche and element of existing things the apeiron, being the first to introduce this name for the arche. He says that it is neither water nor any other of the so-called elements, but a different substance that is limitless or indeterminate, from which there come into being all the heavens and the worlds within them. Harmony of the Opposites Dependent upon Theophrastus, Simplicius says according to Anaximander, things perish into those things out of which they have their being, according to necessity; for they make just recompense to one another for their injustice according to the ordinance or assessment of time. The Aperion as Unconditioned and God We cannot say that the apeiron has no effect, and the only effectiveness which we can ascribe to it is that of a principle. Everything is either a source or derived from a source. But there cannot be a source of the apeiron, for that would be a limit of it. Further, as it is a Beginning, it is both uncreatable and indestructible. For there must be a point at which what has come to be reaches completion and also a termination of all passing away. That is why, as we say there is no principle of this, but it is this which is held to be the principle of other things, and to encompass all and to steer all; as those assert who do not recognize, alongside the infinite, other causes such as mind or friendship. Theories Anaximanders theories were influenced by the  Greek mythical  tradition, and by some ideas of  Thales   the father of philosophy   as well as by observations made by older civilizations in the East (especially by the Babylonian astrologists). All these were elaborated rationally. In his desire to find some universal principle, he assumed like traditional religion the existence of a cosmic order and in elaborating his ideas on this he used the old mythical language which ascribed divine control to various spheres of reality. This was a common practice for the Greek philosophers in a society which saw gods everywhere; therefore they could fit their ideas into a tolerably elastic system. Apeiron For Anaximander, the  principle  of things, the constituent of all substances, is nothing determined and not an element such as water in Thales view. Neither is it something halfway between air and water, or between air and fire, thicker than air and fire, or more subtle than water and earth.  Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature for example, water can only be wet, never dry and therefore cannot be the one primary substance; nor could any of the other candidates. He postulated the  apeiron  as a substance that, although not directly perceptible to us, could explain the opposites he saw around him. Anaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came (apeiron).   Cosmology Anaximanders bold use of non-mythological  explanatory hypotheses considerably distinguishes him from previous cosmology writers such as  Hesiod. It confirms that pre-Socratic philosophers were making an early effort to demythify physical processes. His major contribution to history was writing the oldest prose document about the  Universe  and the origins of  life; for this he is often called the Father of Cosmology and founder of astronomy. However,  pseudo-Plutarch  states that he still viewed celestial bodies as deities. Anaximander was the first to conceive a  mechanical  model of the  world. In his model, the  Earth  floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything. It remains in the same place because of its indifference, a point of view that Aristotle considered ingenious, but false, in  On the Heavens.  Its curious shape is that of a  cylinder  with a height one-third of its diameter. The flat top forms the inhabited world, which is surrounded by a circular oceanic mass. Such a model allowed the concept that  celestial bodies  could pass under it. It goes further than Thales claim of a world floating on water, for which Thales faced the problem of explaining what would contain this ocean, while Anaximander solved it by introducing his concept of infinite (apeiron). Multiple Worlds According to Simplicius, Anaximander already speculated on the plurality of  worlds, similar to  atomists  Leucippus  and  Democritus, and later philosopher  Epicurus. These thinkers supposed that worlds appeared and disappeared for a while, and that some were born when others perished. They claimed that this movement was eternal, for without movement, there can be no generation, no destruction. In addition to Simplicius, Hippolytus  reports Anaximanders claim that from the infinite comes the principle of beings, which themselves come from the heavens and the worlds (several doxographers use the plural when this philosopher is referring to the worlds within,  which are often infinite in quantity).  Cicero  writes that he attributes different gods to the countless worlds. This theory places Anaximander close to the Atomists and the  Epicureans  who, more than a century later, also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared. In the  timeline of the Greek history of thought, some thinkers conceptualized a single world (Plato, Aristotle,  Anaxagoras  and  Archelaus), while others instead speculated on the existence of a series of worlds, continuous or non-continuous (Anaximenes, Heraclitus,  Empedocles  and  Diogenes).   Meteorological phenomena Anaximander attributed some phenomena, such as  thunder  and  lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow. He saw the sea as a remnant of the mass of humidity that once surrounded Earth.  A part of that mass evaporated under the suns action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant.  He explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun.  For him, the Earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. According to Aristotles  Meteorology  (II, 3), Democritus also shared this opinion. Origin of humankind Anaximander speculated about the beginnings and  origin  of animal life. Taking into account the existence of fossils, he claimed that animals sprang out of the sea long ago. The first animals were born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and break. Anaximander put forward the idea that humans had to spend part of this transition inside the mouths of big fish to protect themselves from the Earths climate until they could come out in open air and lose their scales. He thought that, considering humans extended infancy, we could not have survived in the primeval world in the same manner we do presently. Other Accomplishments Cartography Maps were produced in ancient times, also notably in  Egypt,  Lydia, the  Middle East, and  Babylon. Only some small examples survived until today. The unique example of a world map comes from late Babylonian tablet BM 92687 later than 9th century BCE but is based probably on a much older map. These maps indicated directions, roads, towns, borders, and geological features. Anaximanders innovation was to represent the entire inhabited land known to the ancient Greeks. Such an accomplishment is more significant than it at first appears. Anaximander most likely drew this map for three reasons.  First, it could be used to improve navigation and trade between  Miletuss colonies and other colonies around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Second,  Thales  would probably have found it easier to convince the Ionian  city-states  to join in a federation in order to push the Median  threat away if he possessed such a tool. Finally, the philosophical idea of a global representation of the world simply for the sake of knowledge was reason enough to design one. Gnomon The  Suda  relates that Anaximander explained some basic notions of geometry. It also mentions his interest in the measurement of time and associates him with the introduction in  Greece  of the gnomon. In Lacedaemon, he participated in the construction, or at least in the adjustment, of  sundials  to indicate  solstices  and  equinoxes. Indeed, a gnomon required adjustments from a place to another because of the difference in latitude. In his time, the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane. The position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day. As it moves through its apparent course, the sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow, which is shortest at noon, when pointing due south. The variation in the tips position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons; the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice. However, the invention of the gnomon itself cannot be attributed to Anaximander because its use, as well as the division of days into twelve parts, came from the  Babylonians. It is they, according toHerodotus  Histories  (II, 109), who gave the Greeks the art of time measurement. It is likely that he was not the first to determine the solstices, because no calculation is necessary. On the other hand, equinoxes do not correspond to the middle point between the positions during solstices, as the Babylonians thought. As the  Suda  seems to suggest, it is very likely that with his knowledge of geometry, he became the first Greek to accurately determine the equinoxes. Prediction of an earthquake In his philosophical work  De Divinatione  (I, 50, 112), Cicero states that Anaximander convinced the inhabitants of  Lacedaemon  to abandon their city and spend the night in the country with their weapons because an earthquake was near.  The city collapsed when the top of the  Taygetus  split like the stern of a ship. Pliny the Elder also mentions this anecdote (II, 81), suggesting that it came from an admirable inspiration, as opposed to Cicero, who did not associate the prediction with divination. Philosophy Contributions Cosmology the production of the opposite and their separating off are important in his cosmology penalty and retribution of the opposites in accord to the assessment of time. The earth is cylindrical in shape and its depth is 1/3 its breath. It is immobile (the earth does not rest on water ) in the center of the universe by way of its equilibrium. The earth may someday become dry. Concerning the formation of the heavenly bodies: the sun is equal to the earth. The circles and spheres carry the heavenly bodies. An eclipse occur when the aperture of the sun or moon are blocked. Concerning meteorological phenomena: the winds thunder and lightning all these have to do with winds. Zoogamy the 1st living creatures were born in moisture and enclosed in thorny barks. As their age grows they came forth into the drier part and the bark was broken off. Anthropology- Anaximander held the theory of evolution of animals. Man was born from animals of another species (man come into being inside fishes). Conclusion Anaximander was indeed one of the greatest minds that ever lived. By speculating and arguing about the Boundless he was the first metaphysician. By drawing a map of the world he was the first geographer, by boldly speculating about the universe he broke with the ancient image of the celestial vault and became the discoverer of the Western world-picture. The Boundless has no origin. For then it would have a limit. Aristotle once said there is no beginning of the infinite, or in that case it would have an end. But without beginning and indestructible, as being, a sort of first principle is necessary for whatever comes into existence should have and end and there is a conclusion of all destruction. But there is no principle of this Apeiron (www.egs.edu/library/anaximander/qoutes) and Anaximander himself affirm that that all dying things are returning to the element which they came which is the apeiron. The fact that things dies, decays, or wither states its limit, therefore it is limite d, finite, and is bounded by the natural law. We find his theory of Apeiron unbelievable especially when it is first; a theory and has no proof, second; a paradox itself in a way that he viewed the world as tangled in a neatly bounded category. Its hard to believe on what someone has said when that someone, itself, defies what he have stated and thus formed a seemingly contradictory paradox that leads to confusion.

Weather Forecasting with Digital Signals

Weather Forecasting with Digital Signals INTRODUCTION: Digital signal processing (DSP) is concerned with the representation of the signals by a sequence of numbers or symbols and the processing of these signals. Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing. The analog waveform is sliced into equal segments and the waveform amplitude is measured in the middle of each segment. The collection of measurements makes up the digital representation of the waveform. Converting a continuously changing waveform (analog) into a series of discrete levels (digital) Applications of DSP DSP technology is nowadays commonplace in such devices as mobile phones, multimedia computers, video recorders, CD players, hard disc drive controllers and modems, and will soon replace analog circuitry in TV sets and telephones. An important application of DSP is in signal compression and decompression. Signal compression is used in digital cellular phones to allow a greater number of calls to be handled simultaneously within each local cell. DSP signal compression technology allows people not only to talk to one another but also to see one another on their computer screens, using small video cameras mounted on the computer monitors, with only a conventional telephone line linking them together. In audio CD systems, DSP technology is used to perform complex error detection and correction on the raw data as it is read from the CD. some of the mathematical theory underlying DSP techniques, such as Fourier and Hilbert Transforms, digital filter design and signal compression, can be fairly complex, the numerical operations required actually to implement these techniques are very simple, consisting mainly of operations that could be done on a cheap four-function calculator. The architecture of a DSP chip is designed to carry out such operations incredibly fast, processing hundreds of millions of samples every second, to provide real-time performance: that is, the ability to process a signal live as it is sampled and then output the processed signal, for example to a loudspeaker or video display. All of the practical examples of DSP applications mentioned earlier, such as hard disc drives and mobile phones, demand real-time operation. Weather forecasting- is the science of making predictions about general and specific weather phenomenon for a given area based on observations of such weather related factors as atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, precipitation, cloud cover, temperature, humidity, frontal movements, etc. Meteorologists use several tools to help them forecast the weather for an area. These fall under two categories: tools for collecting data and tools for coordinating and interpreting data. Weather forecasting- is the science of making predictions about general and specific weather phenomenon for a given area based on observations of such weather related factors as atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, precipitation, cloud cover, temperature, humidity, frontal movements, etc. Meteorologists use several tools to help them forecast the weather for an area. These fall under two categories: tools for collecting data and tools for coordinating and interpreting data. In a typical weather-forecasting system, recently collected data are fed into a computer model in a process called assimilation. This ensures that the computer model holds the current weather conditions as accurately as possible before using it to predict how the weather may change over the next few days. Weather forecasting is an exact science of data collecting, but interpretation of the data collected can be difficult because of the chaotic nature of the factors that affect the weather. These factors can follow generally recognized trends, but meteorologists understand that many things can affect these trends. With the advent of computer models and satellite imagery, weather forecasting has improved greatly. Weather forecasting- is the science of making predictions about general and specific weather phenomenon for a given area based on observations of such weather related factors as atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, precipitation, cloud cover, temperature, humidity, frontal movements, etc. Meteorologists use several tools to help them forecast the weather for an area. These fall under two categories: tools for collecting data and tools for coordinating and interpreting data. * Tools for collecting data include instruments such as thermometers, barometers, hygrometers, rain gauges, anemometers, wind socks and vanes, Doppler radar and satellite imagery (such as the GOES weather satellite). * Tools for coordinating and interpreting data include weather maps and computer models. In a typical weather-forecasting system, recently collected data are fed into a computer model in a process called assimilation. This ensures that the computer model holds the current weather conditions as accurately as possible before using it to predict how the weather may change over the next few days. Weather forecasting is an exact science of data collecting, but interpretation of the data collected can be difficult because of the chaotic nature of the factors that affect the weather. These factors can follow generally recognized trends, but meteorologists understand that many things can affect these trends. With the advent of computer models and satellite imagery, weather forecasting has improved greatly. Since lives and livelihoods depend on accurate weather forecasting, these improvements have helped not only the understanding of weather, but how it affects living and non living things on Earth. Weather forecasting is the science of making predictions about general and specific weather phenomena for a given area based on observations of such weather related factors as atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, precipitation, cloud cover, temperature, humidity, frontal movements, etc. Meteorologists use several tools to help them forecast the weather for an area. These fall under two categories: tools for collecting data and tools for coordinating and interpreting data. Tools for collecting data include instruments such as thermometers, barometers, hygrometers, rain gauges, anemometers, wind socks and vanes, Doppler radar and satellite imagery (such as the GOES weather satellite). Tools for coordinating and interpreting data include weather maps and computer models. In a typical weather-forecasting system, recently collected data are fed into a computer model in a process called assimilation. This ensures that the computer model holds the current weather conditions as accurately as possible before using it to predict how the weather may change over the next few days. Weather forecasting is an exact science of data collecting, but interpretation of the data collected can be difficult because of the chaotic nature of the factors that affect the weather. These factors can follow generally recognized trends, but meteorologists understand that many things can affect these trends. With the advent of computer models and satellite imagery, weather forecasting has improved greatly. Since lives and livelihoods depend on accurate weather forecasting, these improvements have helped not only the understanding of weather, but how it affects living and nonliving things on Earth. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since at least the nineteenth century. Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve. Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure, current weather conditions, and sky condition, forecast models are now used to determine future conditions. Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome. There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property. Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture, and therefore to traders within commodity markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days. On an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow and the wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them. History of weather control If we dispense with legends, at least Native American Indians had methods which they believed to induce rain. The Finnish people, on the other hand, were believed by others to be able to control all weather. Thus Vikings refused to take Finns on their raids by sea. Remnants of this belief lasted well into the modern age, with many ship crews being reluctant to accept Finnish sailors. The early modern era saw people observe that during battles the firing of cannons and other firearms often precipitated precipitation. The first example of weather control which is still considered workable is probably the lightning conductor. For millennia people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BC, the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology. In about 340 BC, Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica. Later, Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. Chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BC. In 904 AD, Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture discussed the weather forecasting of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations; signs of rain based on observation of the lunar phases; and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds. Ancient weather forecasting methods usually relied on observed patterns of events, also termed pattern recognition. For example, it might be observed that if the sunset was particularly red, the following day often brought fair weather. This experience accumulated over the generations to produce weather lore. However, not all of these predictions prove reliable, and many of them have since been found not to stand up to rigorous statistical testing. It was not until the invention of the electric telegraph in 1835 that the modern age of weather forecasting began. Before this time, it had not been possible to transport information about the current state of the weather any faster than a steam train. The telegraph allowed reports of weather conditions from a wide area to be received almost instantaneously by the late 1840s. This allowed forecasts to be made by knowing what the weather conditions were like further upwind. The two men most credited with the birth of forecasting as a scienc e were Francis Beaufort (remembered chiefly for the Beaufort scale) and his protà ©gà © Robert FitzRoy (developer of the Fitzroy barometer). Both were influential men in British naval and governmental circles, and though ridiculed in the press at the time, their work gained scientific credence, was accepted by the Royal Navy, and formed the basis for all of todays weather forecasting knowledge. To convey information accurately, it became necessary to have a standard vocabulary describing clouds; this was achieved by means of a series of classifications and, in the 1890s, by pictorial cloud atlases. Great progress was made in the science of meteorology during the 20th century. The possibility of numerical weather prediction was proposed by Lewis Fry Richardson in 1922, though computers did not exist to complete the vast number of calculations required to produce a forecast before the event had occurred. Practical use of numerical weather prediction began in 1955, spurred by the development of programmable electronic computers. * Modern aspirations There are two factors which make weather control extremely difficult if not fundamentally intractable. The first one is the immense quantity of energy contained in the atmosphere. The second is its turbulence. Effective cloud seeding to produce rain has always been some 50 years away. People do utilize even the most expensive and experimental types of it, but more in hope than confidence. Another even more speculative and expensive technique that has been semiseriously discussed is the dissipation of hurricanes by exploding a nuclear bomb in the eye of the storm. It is questionable that it will ever even be tried, because if it failed, the result would be a hurricane bearing radioactive fallout along with the destructive power of its winds and rain. * Modern day weather forecasting system Components of a modern weather forecasting system include: Data collection Data assimilation Numerical weather prediction Model output post-processing Forecast presentation to end-user * Data collection Observations of atmospheric pressure, temperature, wind speed, wind direction, humidity, precipitation are made near the earths surface by trained observers, automatic weather stations or buoys. The World Meteorological Organization acts to standardize the instrumentation, observing practices and timing of these observations worldwide. Stations either report hourly in METAR reports, or every six hours in SYNOP reports. Diurnal (daily) rhythm of air pressure in northern Germany (black curve is air pressure) Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any point in the Earths atmosphere. For other uses, see Temperature (disambiguation). An AWS in Antarctica An automatic weather station (AWS) is an automated version of the traditional weather station, either to save human labour or to enable measurements from remote areas. Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and ocean data within the worlds oceans. WMO flag The World Meteorological Organization (WMO, French: , OMM) is an intergovernmental organization with a membership of 188 Member States and Territories. METAR (for METeorological Aerodrome Report) is a format for reporting weather information. SYNOP (surface synoptic observations) is a numerical code (called FM-12 by WMO) used for reporting marine weather observations made by manned and automated weather stations. Measurements of temperature, humidity and wind above the surface are found by launching radiosondes (weather balloon). Data are usually obtained from near the surface to the middle of the stratosphere, about 30,000 m (100,000 ft). In recent years, data transmitted from commercial airplanes through the AMDAR system has also been incorporated into upper air observation, primarily in numerical models. radiosonde with measuring instruments A radiosonde (Sonde is German for probe) is a unit for use in weather balloons that measures various atmospheric parameters and transmits them to a fixed receiver. Rawinsonde weather balloon just after launch. Atmosphere diagram showing stratosphere. Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR) is a program initiated by the World Meteorological Organization. Increasingly, data from weather satellites are being used due to their (almost) global coverage. Although their visible light images are very useful for forecasters to see development of clouds, little of this information can be used by numerical weather prediction models. The infra-red (IR) data however can be used as it gives information on the temperature at the surface and cloud tops. Individual clouds can also be tracked from one time to the next to provide information on wind direction and strength at the clouds steering level. Polar orbiting satellites provide soundings of temperature and moisture throughout the depth of the atmosphere. Compared with similar data from radiosondes, the satellite data has the advantage that coverage is global, however the accuracy and resolution is not as good. A weather satellite is a type of artificial satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and/or climate of the Earth. Sounding The historical nautical term for measuring dept h. Meteorological radar provide information on precipitation location and intensity.. Additionally, if a Pulse Doppler weather radar is used then wind speed and direction can be determined.. * Data assimilation Data assimilation (DA) is a method used in the weather forecasting process in which observations of the current (and possibly, past) weather are combined with a previous forecast for that time to produce the meteorological `analysis; the best estimate of the current state of the atmosphere. Weatherman redirects here. Modern weather predictions aid in timely evacuations and potentially save lives and property damage. More generally, Data assimilation is a method to use observations in the forecasting process. In weather forecasting there are 2 main types of data assimilation: 3 dimensional (3DDA) and 4 dimensional (4DDA). In 3DDA only those observations are used available at the time of analyses. In 4DDA the past observations are included (thus, time dimension added). The first data assimilation methods were called the objective analyses (e.g., Cressman algorithm). This was in contrast to the subjective analyses, when (in the past practice) numerical weather predictions (NWP) forecasts were arbitrarily corrected by meteorologists. The objective methods used simple interpolation approaches, and thus were the kind of 3DDA methods. The similar 4DDA methods, called nudging also exist (e.g. in MM5 NWP model). They are based on the simple idea of Newtonian relaxation. The idea is to add in the right part of dynamical equations of the model the term, proportional to the difference of the calculated meteorological variable and the observation value. This term, that has a negative sign keeps the calculated state vector closer to the observations. The first breakdown in the field of data assimilation was introducing by L.Gandin (1963) with the statistical interpolation (or optimal interpolation ) method. It developed the previous ideas of Kolmogorov. That method is the 3DDA method and is the kind of regression analyses, which utilizes the information about the spatial distributions of covariance functions of the errors of the first guess field (previous forecast) and true field. These functions are never known. However, the different approximations were assumed. In fact optimal interpolation algorithm is the reduced version of the Kalman filtering (KF) algorithm, when the covariance matrices are not calculated from the dynamical equations, but are pre-determined in advance. The Kalman filter (named after its inventor, Rudolf Kalman) is an efficient recursive computational solution for tracking a time-dependent state vector with noisy equations of motion in real time by the least-squares method. When this was recognised the attempts to introduce the KF algorithms as a 4DDA tool for NWP models were done. However, this was (and remains) a very difficult task, since the full version of KF algorithm requires solution of the enormous large number of additional equations. In connection with that the special kind of KF algorithms (suboptimal) for NWP models were developed. Another significant advance in the development of the 4DDA methods was utilizing the optimal control theory (variational approach) in the works of Le Dimet and Talagrand, 1986, based on the previous works of G. Marchuk. The significant advantage of the variational approaches is that the meteorological fields satisfy the dynamical equations of the NWP model and at the same time they minimize the functional, characterizing their difference from observations. Thus, the problem of constrained minimization is solved. The 3DDA variational methods also exist (e.g., Sasaki, 1958). Optimal control theory is a mathematical field that is concerned with control policies that can be deduced using optimization algorithms. As it was shown by Lorenc, 1986, the all abovementioned kinds of 4DDA methods are in some limit equivalent. I.e., under some assumptions they minimize the same cost functional. However, these assumptions never fulfill. The rapid development of the various data assimilation methods for NWP is connected to the two main points in the field of numerical weather prediction: 1. Utilizing the observations currently seems to be the most promicing challange to improve the quality of the forecasts at the different scales (from the planetary scale to the local city, or even street scale) 2. The number of different kinds of observations (sodars, radars, sattelite) is rapidly growing. The DA methods are currently used not also in weather forecasting, but in different environmental forecasting problems, e.g. in hydrological forecasting. Basically the same types of DA methods, as those, described above are in use there. Data assimilation is the challange for the every forecasting problem. Numerical weather prediction Numerical weather prediction is the science of predicting the weather using mathematical models of the atmosphere. Manipulating the huge datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to do this on a resolution fine enough to make the results useful can require some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world. Image File history File links NAM_500_MB.PNGà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã‚ ½ File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Numerical weather prediction Block (meteorology) Image File history File links NAM_500_MB.PNGà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã‚ ½ File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Numerical weather prediction Block (meteorology) A millibar (mbar, also mb) is 1/1000th of a bar, a unit for measurement of pressure. Geopotential height is a vertical coordinate referenced to Earths mean sea level an adjustment to geomet ric height (elevation above mean sea level) using the variation of gravity with latitude and elevation. Weather is a term that encompasses phenomena in the atmosphere of a planet. A mathematical model is an abstract model that uses mathematical language to describe the behaviour of a system. A supercomputer is a computer that leads the world in terms of processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation, at the time of its introduction. An example of 500 mbar geopotential height prediction from a numerical weather prediction model Model output post processing The raw output is often modified before being presented as the forecast. This can be in the form of statistical techniques to remove known biases in the model, or of adjustment to take into account consensus among other numerical weather forecasts. For other senses of this word, see bias (disambiguation). In the past, the human forecaster used to be responsible for generating the entire weather forecast from the observations. However today, for forecasts beyond 24hrs human input is generally confined to post-processing of model data to add value to the forecast. Humans are required to interpret the model data into weather forecasts that are understandable to the end user. Additionally, humans can use knowledge of local effects which may be too small in size to be resolved by the model to add information to the forecast. However, the increasing accuracy of forecast models continues to decrease the need for post-processing and human input. Examples of weather model data can be found on Vigilant Weathers Model Pulse. Presentation of weather forecasts The final stage in the forecasting process is perhaps the most important. Knowledge of what the end user needs from a weather forecast must be taken into account to present the information in a useful and understandable way. * Public information One of the main end users of a forecast is the general public. Thunderstorms can cause strong winds, dangerous lightning strikes leading to power outages, and widespread hail damage. Heavy snow or rain can bring transportation and commerce to a stand-still, as well as cause flooding in low-lying areas. Excessive heat or cold waves can kill or sicken those without adequate utilities. The National Weather Service provides forecasts and watches/warnings/advisories for all areas of the United States to protect life and property and maintain commercial interests. Traditionally, television and radio weather presenters have been the main method of informing the public, however increasingly the internet is being used due to the vast amount of information that can be found. * Air traffic The aviation industry is especially sensitive to the weather. Fog and/or exceptionally low ceilings can prevent many aircraft landing and taking off. Similarly, turbulence and icing can be hazards whilst in flight. Thunderstorms are a problem for all aircraft, due to severe turbulence and icing, as well as large hail , strong winds, and lightning , all of which can cause fatal damage to an aircraft in flight. On a day to day basis airliners are routed to take advantage of the jet stream tailwind to improve fuel efficiency. Air crews are briefed prior to take off on the conditions to expect en route and at their destination. * Utility companies Electricity companies rely on weather forecasts to anticipate demand which can be strongly affected by the weather. In winter, severe cold weather can cause a surge in demand as people turn up their heating. Similarly, in summer a surge in demand can be linked with the increased use of air conditioning systems in hot weather. * Private sector Increasingly, private companies pay for weather forecasts tailored to their needs so that they can increase their profits. For example, supermarket chains may change the stocks on their shelves in anticipation of different consumer spending habits in different weather conditions. a) =Ensemble forecasting= Although a forecast model will predict realistic looking weather features evolving realistically into the distant future, the errors in a forecast will inevitably grow with time due to the chaotic nature of the atmosphere. The detail that can be given in a forecast therefore decreases with time as these errors increase. There becomes a point when the errors are so large that the forecast is completely wrong and the forecasted atmospheric state has no correlation with the actual state of the atmosphere. However, looking at a single forecast gives no indication of how likely that forecast is to be correct. Ensemble forecasting uses lots of forecasts produced to reflect the uncertainty in the initial state of the atmosphere (due to errors in the observations and insufficient sampling). The uncertainty in the forecast can then be assessed by the range of different forecasts produced. They have been shown to be better at detecting the possibility of extreme events at long range. Ensemble forecasts are increasingly being used for operational weather forecasting (for example at ECMWF , NCEP , and the Canadian forecasting center). b) =Nowcasting= The forecasting of the weather in the 0-6 hour timeframe is often referred to as nowcasting . It is in this range that the human forecaster still has an advantage over computer NWP models. In this time range it is possible to forecast smaller features such as individual shower clouds with reasonable accuracy, however these are often too small to be resolved by a computer model. A human given the latest radar, satellite and observational data will be able to make a better analysis of the small scale features present and so will be able to make a more accurate forecast for the following few hours. Signal Processing Generating imagery for forecasting terror threats Intelligence analysts and military planners need predictions about likely terrorist targets in order to better plan the deployment of security forces and sensing equipment. We have addressed this need using Gaussian-based forecasting and uncertainty modeling. Our approach excels at indicating the highest threats expected for each point along a travel path and for a global war on terrorism mission. It also excels at identifying the greatest-likelihood collection areas that would be used to observe a target. 1 on geospatial analysis and asymmetric-threat forecasting in the urban environment. He showed how to extract distinct signatures from associations made between historical event information and contextual information sources such as geospatial and temporal political databases. We have augmented this to include uncertainty estimates associated with historical events and geospatial information layers.2 Event Forecasting Spatial Preferences The notion of spatial preferences has been used to find potential crime1 and threat3 hot spots. The premise is that a terrorist or criminal is directed toward a certain location by a set of qualities, such as geospatial features, demographic and economic information, and recent political events. Focusing on geospatial information, we assume the intended target is associated with features a small distance from the event location. We assign the highest likelihoods to the distances between each key feature and the event, and taper them away from these distances. This behavior is modeled using a kernel function centered at each of these distances. For a Gaussian kernel applied to a discretized map, the probability density function à Ã‚  for a given grid cell g and uncertainty estimates u is given by Dig is the distance from feature i to the grid cell, Din is the distance from the feature to event location n, c is a constant, ÃŽÂ ¦E and ÃŽÂ ¦F are the position uncertainty for event and features respectively, I is the total number of features, and N is the total number of events. Figure 1(a) shows a sample forecast image based on this approach, denoting threat level with colors ranging from blue for lowest threat, through red for highest threat. For the same set of features and events, Figure 1(b) shows a more manageable forecast-in terms of allocating security resources-determined by aggregating feature layers prior to generating the likelihood values. Modeling Uncertainty One of the most important aspects of forecasting is having an estimate of the confidence in the supporting numerical values. In numerical weather prediction, there is always a value of confidence assigned with each forecast. For example, predicting an 80% chance of rain implies that numerical weather models given input parameter variations, predicted eight o

Media and Society Essay -- Papers

Media and Society Does society influence media or does media influence society? In a modern world, dependent on continuous communication this is a very important question. If the world were not dependent on communication over large distances, schooling on a mass basis would not be possible or necessary. Most knowledge in traditional cultures was local knowledge, (Geertz 1983) traditions that were passed on through a local community, a very slow and long drawn out process. Today we live in the "Whole World" in a way that would have been inconceivable to anyone who lived before the 19th century. [IMAGE] "We are now aware of news and situations thousands of miles away, all due to e-communications making such awareness almost instantaneous in the 21st Century. Rapid transfers and e-communications have greatly intensified global diffusion of information." (Anthony Giddens Sociology 1995) [IMAGE] Society today loves stories produced by mass media; sudden death, scandal, and happy endings enter our ...

Whites v. Slaves :: American America History

Whites v. Slaves Throughout the nineteenth century, the relationship between Africans and White settlers had never been exactly pleasant, most Africans were slaves who were usually treated badly and therefore never did respect their white owners. However, over time, these slaves began to revolutionize their culture, language, and points of view based on their environment. Many changes were occurring in this period of time, thus creating countless opportunities for the African Americans to fabricate their new culture. A catalyst to this development of the new society is the noted differences the Africans and whites possess. Many of the Africans despised the whites, so they tired to stay as far away from them as possible, this rift in the peoples created the main African culture, purely based on the opposite ideas that the whites held. On the other hand, many times the White people would help out the Africans, and a bond would form between the slaves and their master. Although the groups tried to remain different in this situation, the ideas between the two mingled together and they influenced each other. As horrific as slavery may have seemed at the time, I think it may have been a "positive good", simply due to the actuality that at this time, White people were exceedingly ignorant, and without slavery, they possibly would not have a way of dealing with interactions with the slaves. As we look to post-Civil wartime, up to the time of MLK, we see that ignorance was an infestation throughout all of us, without the slavery, Africans were treated with the utmost disrespect. Common rights were stripped from them, and at times they were reduced to being treated like animals. During the period in question, the two races grew into coexisting without any major conflict or altercation. Comparatively to the north, the slave southern states did not seem to treat its workers any worse. It was said that at the time, the slaves were achieving better shelter, food and clothing. The migrant workers in the north at many times worked similar 10-14 hour shifts, and at many times, the slaved did not work that many hours, depending on what type of system they were working. Plus the workers up north did not have much food to eat, or clothes to wear, something the slaves did enjoy. Whites v. Slaves :: American America History Whites v. Slaves Throughout the nineteenth century, the relationship between Africans and White settlers had never been exactly pleasant, most Africans were slaves who were usually treated badly and therefore never did respect their white owners. However, over time, these slaves began to revolutionize their culture, language, and points of view based on their environment. Many changes were occurring in this period of time, thus creating countless opportunities for the African Americans to fabricate their new culture. A catalyst to this development of the new society is the noted differences the Africans and whites possess. Many of the Africans despised the whites, so they tired to stay as far away from them as possible, this rift in the peoples created the main African culture, purely based on the opposite ideas that the whites held. On the other hand, many times the White people would help out the Africans, and a bond would form between the slaves and their master. Although the groups tried to remain different in this situation, the ideas between the two mingled together and they influenced each other. As horrific as slavery may have seemed at the time, I think it may have been a "positive good", simply due to the actuality that at this time, White people were exceedingly ignorant, and without slavery, they possibly would not have a way of dealing with interactions with the slaves. As we look to post-Civil wartime, up to the time of MLK, we see that ignorance was an infestation throughout all of us, without the slavery, Africans were treated with the utmost disrespect. Common rights were stripped from them, and at times they were reduced to being treated like animals. During the period in question, the two races grew into coexisting without any major conflict or altercation. Comparatively to the north, the slave southern states did not seem to treat its workers any worse. It was said that at the time, the slaves were achieving better shelter, food and clothing. The migrant workers in the north at many times worked similar 10-14 hour shifts, and at many times, the slaved did not work that many hours, depending on what type of system they were working. Plus the workers up north did not have much food to eat, or clothes to wear, something the slaves did enjoy.

What Is Hypnosis? Describe the Psychological and Physical Aspects of Hypnosis and Discuss the Role of Relaxation in Hypnotherapy

Introduction This essay discusses the core characteristics of hypnosis, concentrating on its major psychological and physical features. It begins by providing a background of the practice. This is important because it draws out how the understanding and definition of hypnosis has changed over time. This is followed by a section considering the psychological and physical aspects of hypnosis, after which the final section discusses the importance of relaxation in hypnotherapy. Hypnosis is defined loosely as an altered mental state, superficially resembling sleep, characterised by a heightened awareness of subconscious detail (Brink 2008; Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004). This definition will be developed and expanded in greater detail throughout the essay. A full understanding of hypnosis and hypnotherapy requires that the practices are placed in their historical and cultural context. What is now known as hypnosis has been recorded on many occasions throughout history, dating back several millennia to the civilisations of ancient Egypt, Rome, and Greece. It was typically performed as part of shamanistic, religious or spiritual rituals (Brink 2008; Waterfield 2004). However, there is some scepticism regarding the veracity of these historical accounts (e.g., Waterfield 2004). Hypnosis in its modern Western form was first practiced by Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815), who was an Austrian physician. Mesmer understood it through the theoretical lens of ‘animal magnetism’ or ‘mesmerism’, which was related to the idea that health was contingent on the distribution of ‘universal fluids’. He believed that magnets could be used to direct these fluids, prevent blockages and ultimately cure disease; hypnosis worked similarly in Mesmer’s eyes in that it was able to transmit healing forces and produce cures (Waterfield 2004). This notion was developed following Mesmer’s death by Armand de Puysegur, who realised that dictation and verbal communication in the form of commands could induce trances (Hadley and Staudacher 1996). The theoretical groundwork laid by Mesmer and Puysegur was revised in the 19th century by James Braid (1795-1860), who realised that trance-like states could be brought on by suggestions as well as commands. Braid also redefined the practice, calling it ‘hypnotism’. The process began to gradually gain wider acceptance as a therapeutic agent, especially useful in the relief of pain and as an anaesthetic (Hadley and Staudacher 1996). The future of what is now known as hypnotherapy was secured in 1892 when the British Medical Association (BMA) commissioned a report on the characteristics of hypnosis for medical purposes, which yielded highly promising results (Waterfield 2004). Hypnosis and hypnotherapy were gradually refined and developed as new fields took interest and various schools of thought branched off in opposing directions, most notably in France. One of the most important developments was the relationship between Sigmund Freud and hypnosis, and it was this that saw the now crucial introduction of the theory of the unconscious mind into the practice (Waterfield 2004). Freud’s disenchantment with hypnosis in favour of psychoanalysis saw a decline in its popularity, although there was a revival after the 1950s when research unearthed a variety of new applications (Waterfield 2004). The work of Milton Erickson (1901-1980) was crucial in this respect. He built on Freud’s introduction of subconscious elements, and his success was essential in the creating the practice in its current form (Waterfield 2004). This provides an important backdrop in understanding what hypnosis actually is. It is useful at this stage to dispel a misconception, namely that hypnosis is a form of unconsciousness comparable to sleep. As shall be demonstrated, subjects are actually awake and capable of high levels of awareness, albeit not of the environment. It is more accurately described as a state of physical relaxation, including an altered state of consciousness in which the subconscious mind is more accessible and more active (Mason 2008, cited in Segi 2012: 27). In terms of its psychological characteristics, hypnosis can be described as natural, trancelike state. It is generally agreed that while under hypnosis a person has a heightened sense of focus or concentration, usually directed towards a specific object or memory, which entails an ability to block out distractions from outside (Segi 2012; Hadley and Staudacher 1996). One of the key psychological aspects of hypnosis is related to the subconscious mind, which in some shape or form is responsible for automatic and intuitive mental functions (Brink 2008; Hadley and Staudacher 1996). Since it has no clear location in the brain the subconscious can seem rather elusive, but it can be seen in many day-today tasks, such as typing, writing, or catching a ball. Driving is among the most oft-cited examples of subconscious functioning; it is common to internalise routes and to navigate while performing automatic processes such as changing gear without any memory of it. Tasks such as these can be carried out almost unknowingly and details often go largely unremembered (Brink 2008). Thus, the subconscious is highly active on a continuous basis. Hypnosis involves putting an individual in touch with the subconscious through intense concentration. It was previously thought that this was actually a kind of unconsciousness; however, as Hadley and Staudacher (1978) show, this view has come in for revision and new research has shown that a hypnotised person is fully awake and extremely focused; the appearance of unconsciousness arises because attention is diverted away from peripheral stimuli (Spiegel 1978). This is an important psychological and physical characteristic of hypnosis. One of the main psychological aspects of hypnosis is an increased susceptibility to suggestion (Brink 2008; Hadley and Staudacher 1996). The subject generally heeds only the suggestions of the hypnotist, and this appears to be done in ‘an uncritical, automatic fashion, ignoring all aspects of the environment†¦He sees, feels, smells, and otherwise perceives in accordance with the hypnotist’s suggestions, even though these suggestions may be in apparent contradiction to the stimuli that impinge upon him’ (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004: 1). Moreover, the susceptibility to suggestion may be extended such that the subject is still under the ‘control’ of the hypnotist during ordinary, ‘waking’ activity (Heap and Dryden 1991). In terms of its physical aspects, hypnosis has several distinctive characteristics. In the first stage of the process, the subject’s body becomes extremely relaxed (this will be discussed further in the section on relaxation), which initiates a series of other physical changes. The heart rate, for example, slows considerably and with it the rate of breathing grows deeper and more rhythmic. As suggested earlier, this is not to be confused with deep sleep, which is characterised by a lack of awareness to external stimuli; rather it is a hypnotic trance in which the subject is highly attentive at all times. In fact, it is often argued that a hypnotic trance brings about a greater level of sensitivity to stimuli than usual (Karle and Boy 1987). This intense period of focus manifests in a physical change in the nature of brain activity. Physical evidence for this fact was first produced in 1929 when Hans Berger tested the brain activity of a hypnotised subject using the process of electroencephalography (the device is called an electroencephalogram or EEG) (Karle and Boy 1987). This measures electrical activity in the brain as waves. In order to understand the physical changes associated with hypnosis, it is necessary to briefly describe the four different kinds of brain waves: alpha, beta, theta, and delta. Under ordinary circumstances, mental activity produces beta waves. A heightened sense of relaxation creates more alpha waves; this state might be described as ‘light hypnosis’. As the body becomes increasingly relaxed, theta waves become dominant. This is associated with dreaming, or medium to deep hypnosis, as well as greater engagement with the subconscious. Finally, during periods of very deep hypnosis t he mind produces delta waves. These have an extremely low frequency and are usually created entirely by the subconscious, as during hypnosis or dreamless sleep (Brink 2008). In terms of underlying brain activity, therefore, the process of hypnosis initiates a transition that begins with beta waves and progresses through alpha, theta, and finally delta waves. Conversely, when a subject is brought out of hypnosis, or awakes from a deep, dreamless sleep, the stages of electrical activity in the brain are reversed, beginning with delta and ending with beta (Brink 2008). It is difficult to understand the nature of hypnosis, both psychologically and physically, without an appreciation of the tools and methods employed by a hypnotist. The inducement into a trance-like state is achieved through relaxation techniques as part of a process called ‘induction’ (Brink 2008; Hadley and Staudacher 1996). This can take different forms depending on the particular therapist, but the result is always broadly similar: a state of heightened focus on one or more specific and internal factors, and a decline in awareness of environmental or external stimuli (Hadley and Staudacher 1996). This is induced through verbal cues or instructions designed to induce a trance (Karle and Boys 1987). However, there is considerable variation in terms of the form this takes. Many therapists use authoritative commands, such as ‘you are now feeling relaxed’, or ‘I want you to picture yourself†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢; Alternatively, others employ a more suggestive style, including statements such as ‘maybe you would like to†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. While the details vary, however, all methods of induction tend to be characterised by a slow, clear prose style (Karle and Boys 1987). It is important to have an appreciation of the methods used to induce hypnosis as it is the essential precursor to the psychological and physical changes discussed in the first part of this essay. It is likewise crucial to understand the role of relaxation in hypnotherapy, as this is not only a crucial characteristic of the state itself but also the nexus between the beginning of the process and the transition into a hypnotic trance (Segi 2012). Hypnosis can only be achieved if the subject is sufficiently relaxed to disengage the conscious mind and engage the subconscious. This leaves an opening for suggestion and behavioural change, which are crucial components of hypnotherapy. In ordinary parlance, relaxation does not refer to the state necessary to induce a hypnotic trance but rather to the absence of strenuous mental or physical stimuli (Brink 2008). Thus, a person might be said to be relaxing on the sofa while reading a book. In actual fact, the conscious mind is still highly active at this stage, which precludes the opening up of the subconscious. Successful hypnotherapy requires a more ‘complete’ sense of physical and mental relaxation, including the alleviation of all forms of stress. There are various techniques involved here, but one of the most common is called Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) (Brink 2008). This works by instructing the subject to systematically relax various areas of their body i ndependently and in stages, often focusing on muscle groups. This can also be achieved via ‘self-hypnosis’, and for many people is an important part of stress- or sleep-management strategies (Segi 2012; Brink 2008). The ability of hypnosis to induce this kind of state is one of its most unique qualities, and even if nothing else is achieved the mere process of compete relaxation is an important component of hypnotherapy (Hadley and Staudacher 1996). One thing to note is that complete relaxation of this kind is not artificial or unnatural. It is part of the ordinary human condition, and the role of hypnotherapy is simply to induce it under controlled circumstances and with a particular goal in mind (Robertson 2012; Brink 2008; Hadley and Staudacher 1996). This essay has discussed some of the competing historical notions of what hypnosis is, as well as the way it is understood by modern practitioners and theorists. Both the process of hypnosis and the practice of hypnotherapy have undergone considerable change in terms of the way they are understood. This has led up to the modern theory of hypnosis as a state of relaxation and increased accessibility to the subconscious. The crucial relationship between relaxation and hypnotherapy (and hypnosis) has been drawn out. Undoubtedly, the important role of hypnosis historically is matched today, and it can be seen as a major part of many rituals, medical procedures, leisure activities, sports, and entertainment (Segi 2012). References Brink, T. L. (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/TLBrink_PSYCH13.pdf [Retrieved 18/05/2014] Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004) Hypnosis http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/279820/hypnosis [Recovered 18/05/2014] Hadley, J. and Staudacher, C. (1996) Hypnosis for Change, New Harbinger Publications Heap, M. and Dryden, W. (1991) Hypnotherapy: a Handbook. Berkshire: Open University Press Karle, H. and Boys, J. (1987) Hypnotherapy a Practical Handbook, London: Free Association Books Kirsch, I. (1994) Clinical hypnosis as a nondeceptive placebo: Empirically derived techniques, The American journal of clinical hypnosis 37 (2), pp. 95–106 Robertson, D (2012) The Practice of Cognitive-Behavioural Hypnotherapy: A Manual for Evidence-Based Clinical Hypnosis, London: Karnac Segi, S. (2012) Hypnosis for pain management, anxiety and behavioral disorders. Factiva. [Retrieved 18/05/2014] Spiegel, H. and Spiegel, D. (1978) Trance and Treatment, Basic Books Inc., New York Waterfield, R. (2004) Hidden Depths The Story of Hypnosis, London: Pan Books.

Problems of Modern India and Swami Vivekanand Essay

India is one of the fastest developing countries in the world. With its diversified culture, civilization, natural resources, technology and a wealth of skilled human resources, it is also one of the fastest growing economies in the world. But at the same time there are several problems plaguing our Modern India which are affecting the growth and development of our country. Widespread corruption and terrorism are some of the main problems facing India today. Corruption is very widespread in India. It ranks 72 amongst the top most corrupt countries in the world. In India corruption takes the form of bribes, evasion of taxes, misappropriation of funds, and embezzlement amongst others. A study found that more than 50% of the Indian population had firsthand experience of paying bribes or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office. The main consequence of corruption is a loss to exchequer, an unhealthy environment for investment and an increase in cost of government services. Apart from this Corruption also leads to an unethical society. This increases the already existing gap between poor and wealthy. This may lead to unrest and destruction of modern societies. This social evil needs to be curbed so as to bring back moral values in the society as well as to fill the widening gap between the wealthy and the poor. Swami Vivekananda was, above all, an honest and ethical man on a righteous path. He had a strong sense of ethics, morals and principles. One of his famous sayings is that â€Å"Unselfishness is God†. Selfishness and greed are the main causes of corruption. If we all followed in Swami Vivekananda’s footsteps and followed his teachings, we would know better than to be so selfish as to extort money from other people in the form of bribes and embezzlement. If more people followed Swami Vivekananda’s teachings and principles, we would not have so many selfish people who only think about what they want and not about the situation of the poor person whom they are forcing to pay bribes. We would not have so many greed driven people who, in spite of having more wealth than the person sitting across them, still extort and bully the other person into paying them massive bribes. If only more people followed the righteous path shown by Swami Vivekananda and put the ideals he taught to practice, the evil of corruption wouldn’t be so rampant in modern India. Terrorism today is a global issue that’s feared by almost every country in the world. But it’s a major issue in modern India owing to the basic religious differences present in India since the time of independence. Religion is the main cause behind terrorism. Terrorists commit acts of terrorism and violence in the name of protecting and promoting their religion. Pakistani militants have constantly attacked India since the Mumbai bombings of 1993 in the name of Jihad. Swami Vivekananda always preached about the importance of uniting religious beliefs for the progress of the human race. He didn’t believe in marginalizing any religion and believed every religion to be equal. He definitely was against any kind of violence especially for the preaching of religion. One of his famous sayings was â€Å"The secret of religion lies not in theories but in practice. To be good and do good – that is the whole of religion†. He preached about spreading religion by doing good and teaching people how to always do good unto others. Terrorists today have chosen the path of violence to spread their religious beliefs which is totally opposite to what Swami Vivekananda taught us so no wonder terrorism is such a big issue. Religious tolerance and respect for one other’s beliefs would go a long way towards helping us curb the evil of terrorism and also help humanity move forward harmoniously on the path of progress in unity. Corruption and terrorism are two of the major issues eating away at our glorious nation and hindering its progress greatly. Following in Swami Vivekananda’s footsteps and practicing the ideals and principles that he preached would help the populace of modern India be less selfish so as to consider the needs of others and less greedy so that people think twice before extorting and bullying some poor guy for their money. It would also increase religious tolerance amongst people so that terrorism is curbed and modern India can progress without such hindrances.